Category: Musculoskeletal

Bunions, known medically as hallux valgus, are bony deformities that develop at the base of the big toe, causing it to angle toward the second toe and often creating pain, inflammation, and difficulty walking or wearing shoes. Treatment options are extensive, ranging from conservative, non-surgical approaches to various surgical methods. Each modality aims to relieve symptoms, slow progression, or correct deformity, depending on the individual patient’s severity and needs. This essay provides a comprehensive overview of the most current treatment strategies for bunions.

Conservative (Non-Surgical) Treatments

Conservative management forms the first line of therapy for most individuals with mild to moderate symptoms, especially when the deformity is not severe and there are no significant complications.

Modified Footwear

Wearing shoes with a broad toe box, low heels, and sufficient cushioning can significantly reduce pain and prevent further irritation of the bunion. Tight or pointed shoes exacerbate symptoms and accelerate deformity. Many patients find that shifting to sensible, roomy footwear provides relief and keeps the bunion manageable.

Pads, Supports, and Splints

Bunion pads and sleeves, as well as toe separators or spacers, act as buffers between the bunion and the shoe, reducing direct friction and soreness. Splints may also be used, particularly at night, to attempt to realign the big toe. While these devices don’t correct the underlying bone displacement, they can help with pain management and, in some cases, slow down progression.

Shoe Inserts and Orthotics

Custom orthotic devices and padded shoe inserts redistribute pressure away from the affected joint, helping to reduce discomfort. These inserts—available over the counter or by prescription—improve biomechanics and can be tailored to suit patients’ activity patterns.​

Physical Therapy and Exercises

Strengthening and stretching exercises—commonly performed under the guidance of a physical therapist—target the muscles and connective tissues around the foot. Toe curls, marble pick-ups, and gentle stretches can improve mobility, provide mild symptomatic relief, and may enhance joint alignment when combined with other conservative measures.

Pain Relief Measures

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen, naproxen, or aspirin are routine options for patients experiencing bunion-related pain or inflammation. Topical NSAIDs, creams, or gels may offer local relief. Cold therapy (ice packs wrapped in towels or cold water soaks) alleviates swelling, whereas hot soaks or heating pads can relax sore muscles and joints.

Manual Therapies

Foot Mobilisation Therapy is a gentle hands-on approach designed to restore movement and realign the big toe joint, potentially reducing pain and aiding mobility. Dry needling and laser therapy have also been explored for symptomatic control, though evidence supporting their effectiveness is still evolving.

Weight Management and Lifestyle Adjustments

Maintaining a healthy body weight reduces the load on the feet and may slow bunion progression. Regular podiatric assessments and early intervention with tailored treatment plans are critical to prevent worsening, especially for those with underlying conditions like arthritis or diabetes.

Limitations of Non-Surgical Approaches

While conservative management often helps manage symptoms, it does not correct the anatomical deformity. Studies have shown mixed results on long-term effectiveness; many conservative treatments primarily target pain and functional improvement but may not halt bunion progression in all cases.

Surgical Treatment Options

When conservative measures are insufficient, and the bunion causes persistent pain, mobility issues, or significant deformity, surgical intervention becomes viable. More than 100 surgical techniques exist, each tailored to the severity of the bunion and patient needs.

Common Surgical Procedures

• Osteotomy: The most widely performed bunion surgery involves cutting and realigning the bone, sometimes stabilised with screws or wires. Chevron and scarf osteotomies are regularly used, with distal metatarsal osteotomies for mild to moderate cases and more proximal or fusion procedures for severe deformities.
• Soft Tissue Procedures: Rarely performed alone, these involve rebalancing surrounding tendons, ligaments, or joint capsules as an adjunct to osteotomies.
• Minimally Invasive (Keyhole) Surgery: This technique uses small incisions and specialised instruments, causing minimal tissue disruption and generally leading to quicker recovery times. Outcomes appear similar to traditional open techniques, though both have their indications and potential risks.
• Bunionectomy: Simple removal of the bony prominence is less common due to high recurrence rates and lower patient satisfaction.
• Joint Fusion (Arthrodesis): Reserved for patients with severe arthritis or irreparable joint damage, this procedure involves fusing the affected joint to eliminate pain and deformity.

Surgical Risks and Considerations

Surgery can correct the underlying misalignment and provide lasting symptom relief in most cases. However, potential complications include infection, overcorrection, nerve injury, prolonged recovery, and, occasionally, the recurrence of the bunion. Decisions about surgery should be made in consultation with an orthopaedic surgeon, weighing the benefits, risks, and individual goals.

Choosing the Right Treatment

The optimal approach for bunion management depends on several factors:

• Severity of deformity and symptoms
• Impact on daily activities and footwear choices
• Presence of underlying health conditions (e.g., arthritis, diabetes)
• Age, activity level, and patient preference

Early podiatric intervention, lifestyle adjustments, and ongoing monitoring remain crucial even after successful bunion surgery or conservative care.​

Bunion management is a multi-faceted process, encompassing conservative therapies—modified footwear, orthotics, physical therapy, pain relief, and manual therapies—as well as surgical correction for advanced cases. The choice of treatment is highly individualised, depending on symptom severity, patient health status, and personal goals. Advances in minimising invasiveness and improving rehabilitation have further expanded options for patients, ensuring that effective solutions exist for virtually all stages of this common foot condition. Continuing research and podiatric care will refine these strategies, providing even better outcomes for those affected by bunions.

Baxter’s neuropathy, also known as entrapment of the first branch of the lateral plantar nerve, is a relatively under-appreciated but clinically significant cause of chronic foot pain, often masquerading as or coexisting with plantar fasciitis.

Anatomical Background

Baxter’s nerve, properly termed the first branch of the lateral plantar nerve, arises from the tibial nerve within the tarsal tunnel and travels beneath the abductor hallucis muscle, running between the medial calcaneal tuberosity and quadratus plantae before innervating the abductor digiti minimi muscle. Its anatomical course positions it at risk for compression and traction injuries, particularly in settings of biomechanical overload, local swelling, or anatomical distortion.

Compression can occur due to hypertrophy or fibrosis of adjacent musculature (particularly abductor hallucis and quadratus plantae), abnormal bony architecture, systemic disorders causing foot swelling, or repetitive traction in athletes, runners, and individuals with certain foot deformities such as pes planus (flat foot) or excessive pronation.

Pathophysiology

Entrapment of Baxter’s nerve results in neuropathic pain and sometimes motor dysfunction, producing a spectrum of symptoms that can overlap with or mimic plantar fasciitis. The underlying pathology involves direct nerve compression, ischemia, and subsequent inflammation, often progressing to demyelination and axonal degeneration when chronic. Risk factors include obesity, chronic overuse (as in athletes), foot deformities (flat foot, valgus heel), and local trauma.

Histopathological studies have shown perineural fibrosis and nerve degeneration in affected individuals, emphasizing the role of chronic mechanical irritation. Hypertrophy or spasm of the abductor hallucis or quadratus plantae can exacerbate compression, particularly in those with repetitive heel loading patterns.

Clinical Presentation

Baxter’s neuropathy typically presents as persistent, burning or aching pain along the medial and plantar aspect of the heel, often worse during standing, walking, or running. Unlike plantar fasciitis, the pain may be less prominent on first rising but increases with activity. It can radiate distally toward the lateral foot and sometimes to the fifth toe.

Motor findings are less common but may include weakness or atrophy of the abductor digiti minimi muscle, leading in severe cases to visible interdigital narrowing. Unlike tarsal tunnel syndrome, Baxter’s neuropathy does not usually feature numbness or tingling along the entire sole or medial ankle, helping clinicians distinguish it. Provocative tests, such as deep palpation between the medial calcaneal tuberosity and abductor hallucis with reproduction of symptoms, are commonly positive.

Differential Diagnosis

Correct diagnosis is essential because Baxter’s neuropathy can easily be misdiagnosed as chronic plantar fasciitis, tarsal tunnel syndrome, medial calcaneal neuritis, or stress fracture. Key differentiators include the precise location of pain, absence of morning onset aggravation typical of plantar fasciitis, and lack of widespread sensory changes (seen in tarsal tunnel syndrome).

Imaging and diagnostic tests are important adjuncts. MRI and high-resolution ultrasound can reveal muscle atrophy (abductor digiti minimi), signs of nerve entrapment, and help exclude other causes such as soft tissue mass or plantar fascia tears. Electromyography (EMG) may reveal denervation of the abductor digiti minimi. Diagnostic nerve blocks can be used to confirm the source of pain.

Diagnosis and Assessment

Diagnosis of Baxter’s neuropathy hinges on careful history, physical examination, and, when indicated, imaging and neurophysiological studies. Features suggestive of Baxter’s neuropathy include:

• Medial plantar heel pain, worse with activity
• Deep tenderness anterolateral to the medial calcaneal tuberosity
• Absence of diffuse sole numbness (unlike tarsal tunnel syndrome)
• Weakness/atrophy of abductor digiti minimi muscle

Imaging modalities such as MRI can show muscle changes, while ultrasound may help visualize nerve pathology or muscle changes. Both are useful for ruling out alternative diagnoses and confirming neuritis or atrophy in chronic cases.

Management Options

Treatment for Baxter’s neuropathy follows a stepwise approach, beginning with conservative measures and progressing to interventional therapies if needed.

Conservative Management

• Activity modification: Reduction in aggravating activities, such as running or prolonged standing, is crucial.
• Footwear adjustment: Wearing shoes with adequate arch support and heel cushioning can help offload stress from the medial heel.
• Physical therapy: Targeted stretching and strengthening of the foot muscles, custom orthotics, and exercises to address pronation or flat foot .
• Medications: Anti-inflammatory drugs may reduce local inflammation, though neuropathic pain agents (e.g., gabapentin) may be indicated in persistent cases.
• Steroid injection: Local corticosteroid injection around Baxter’s nerve can be diagnostic and therapeutic, providing temporary relief and aiding confirmation of the diagnosis.

Surgical and Interventional Therapies

When conservative management fails, surgical decompression (nerve release) may be required. Procedures typically involve exploration and neurolysis of the nerve as it passes beneath the abductor hallucis and adjacent structures. Outcome studies have demonstrated high success rates when properly diagnosed and performed, with patients experiencing marked pain reduction and functional improvement.

Ultrasound-guided radiofrequency ablation has also emerged as a less invasive technique with promising results in selected cases. Postoperative rehabilitation focuses on maintaining foot biomechanics and preventing recurrence through orthotics and activity modification.

Relevance for Foot Health Practice

The significance of Baxter’s neuropathy is increasingly recognized among podiatric and sports medicine practitioners due to its prevalence in chronic heel pain syndromes. Up to 20% of resistant or atypical plantar heel pain may be due to Baxter’s nerve entrapment, making its consideration essential when routine therapies for plantar fasciitis fail.

Improved awareness leads to earlier diagnosis, more targeted therapies, and reduced morbidity for affected patients. Teaching clinicians to palpate the nerve’s course, recognize associated muscle changes, and utilize appropriate imaging ensures optimal outcomes. Differentiation from other heel pain syndromes is key; many patients have comorbid plantar fasciitis and Baxter’s neuropathy, requiring tailored multidisciplinary care.

Baxter’s neuropathy is a critical but under-recognized cause of medial plantar heel pain, with important implications for diagnosis and management. Its clinical presentation overlaps with common conditions like plantar fasciitis, yet specific features and targeted assessments can distinguish it. Modern imaging and diagnostic blocks help confirm the diagnosis, while conservative and surgical therapies offer reliable relief. Increased attention to Baxter’s nerve entrapment in both general and specialist practice enhances outcomes for those with chronic heel pain, ensuring effective treatment and restoration of foot function.

Ball of foot pain, also known as metatarsalgia, is a common condition that affects people of all ages, particularly those who spend significant time on their feet, wear ill-fitting shoes, or participate in high-impact activities. It describes discomfort or pain localized at the front part of the foot, where the metatarsal bones connect to the toes. While often not life-threatening, this condition can significantly impair mobility, reduce quality of life, and limit participation in daily activities or exercise. Understanding its causes, symptoms, risk factors, prevention, and management is essential to addressing ball of foot pain effectively.

Anatomy of the Ball of the Foot

The “ball” of the foot is the padded area between the arch and the toes, underneath the heads of the metatarsal bones. It plays a crucial role in balance, weight-bearing, and movement. During walking, running, or standing, the metatarsal heads absorb and distribute the body’s weight. The soft tissue beneath this region provides cushioning and shock absorption. When this delicate balance is disturbed—whether through biomechanical stress, footwear, or underlying health issues—pain and inflammation can develop.

Causes of Ball of Foot Pain

There are several underlying causes for metatarsalgia, often overlapping.

• Improper Footwear: Shoes with high heels or narrow toe boxes place excessive pressure on the front of the foot. Meanwhile, thin-soled shoes without cushioning, such as ballet flats, fail to protect the metatarsal area.
• High-Impact Activities: Runners, dancers, and athletes are particularly prone to metatarsalgia because repeated striking of the forefoot increases strain.
• Foot Structure Abnormalities: Flat feet, high arches, or a second toe longer than the big toe (Morton’s toe) alter how pressure is distributed across the foot.
• Excessive Weight: Being overweight increases the load on the forefoot with every step.
• Medical Conditions: Arthritis, diabetes-related neuropathy, and circulatory problems can contribute to inflammation or altered movement patterns that lead to pain.
• Injuries and Deformities: Stress fractures, hammertoes, and bunions shift pressure unevenly, straining the ball of the foot over time.
• Nerve Issues: Morton’s neuroma, a condition where tissue thickens around a nerve between the third and fourth toes, can cause sharp burning pain in the ball of the foot.

Symptoms of Ball of Foot Pain

The pain associated with metatarsalgia can vary, but common symptoms include:

• Sharp, aching, or burning pain in the ball of the foot.
• Pain that worsens when standing, walking, running, or flexing the toes.
• Tingling, numbness, or “pebble-in-the-shoe” sensations.
• Inflammation or swelling in the forefoot.
• Instability or discomfort when wearing certain shoes.

These symptoms may gradually build up over weeks or appear suddenly, depending on the cause.

Risk Factors

Certain people are more predisposed to developing ball of foot pain:

• Athletes who engage in running, tennis, or sports requiring sudden acceleration.
• Older adults, since fat pads on the feet thin with age, reducing natural cushioning.
• Fashion shoe wearers, especially those who regularly wear stilettos or narrow shoes.
• People with deformities like bunions, hammertoes, or flat feet.
• Workers on hard surfaces who spend prolonged hours standing without supportive footwear.

Diagnosis

A thorough evaluation by a doctor or podiatrist typically involves:

• Patient history, including activity level, footwear habits, and any injuries.
• Physical examination, assessing foot structure, gait, range of motion, and pressure points.
• Imaging tests, such as X-rays to rule out fractures or arthritis, and MRI or ultrasound for soft tissue causes like neuromas.
• Gait analysis, to determine weight distribution during walking.

These measures help pinpoint the specific factors contributing to metatarsalgia and inform treatment choices.

Prevention Strategies

Preventing ball of foot pain begins with lifestyle adjustments and attention to footwear.

• Wearing the right shoes: Shoes should have a wide toe box, adequate cushioning, and low heels. Athletes require sport-specific shoes with ample shock absorption.
• Using orthotics or insoles: Custom or off-the-shelf inserts redistribute pressure across the foot. Metatarsal pads placed just behind the ball of the foot can reduce strain.
• Weight management: Maintaining a healthy weight reduces pressure on the forefoot.
• Proper foot care: Regular stretching, strengthening, and appropriate rest between activities can keep the feet strong.
• Exercise moderation: Gradually increasing activity levels minimizes the risk of overuse injuries.

Treatment Options

Managing ball of foot pain depends on severity and cause, but common approaches include:

• Rest and Activity Modification: Reducing long periods of standing, limiting high-impact exercise, and substituting with low-impact options like cycling or swimming.
• Ice and Anti-Inflammatories: Ice packs reduce swelling, while NSAIDs like ibuprofen can relieve pain.
• Footwear Adjustments: Transitioning to supportive, cushioned shoes or using orthotic inserts.
• Stretching and Strengthening: Exercises for the toes, arches, and calf muscles improve stability and weight distribution.
• Physical Therapy: Professionals may guide exercises, taping techniques, or manual therapy for improved mobility and reduced pain.
• Medical Interventions:
  • Corticosteroid injections for severe inflammation or neuroma pain.
  • Surgery in rare cases, especially for correcting deformities, removing neuromas, or realigning metatarsal bones.

Daily Living and Lifestyle Considerations

Living with chronic forefoot pain can be frustrating, but several adjustments can improve comfort:

• Choosing supportive footwear for work and leisure rather than prioritizing fashion.
• Alternating shoes throughout the week to reduce repetitive pressure on the same areas of the foot.
• Using cushioned mats or padding if standing on hard surfaces for prolonged periods.
• Pacing activities to avoid prolonged strain on the metatarsals.
• Foot massages and warm soaks to improve circulation and ease tension.

By integrating these practices, individuals can often manage symptoms effectively without invasive treatment.

Psychological and Social Impact

Beyond physical discomfort, persistent foot pain impacts well-being. Restricted walking can limit independence, particularly in older adults. People may avoid social events, work duties, or fitness activities, leading to frustration, reduced confidence, or isolation. The association between chronic pain and mood disorders such as depression or anxiety underscores the importance of addressing both physical and psychological aspects of care.

Emerging Research and Innovations

Recent research seeks better ways to relieve metatarsalgia through technology and biomechanics. Advances include:

• 3D-printed orthotics, which provide custom cushioning and alignment support.
• Improved shock-absorbing materials in athletic footwear.
• Biomechanical gait retraining to encourage healthier walking and running patterns.
• Regenerative therapies, such as platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injections, studied for their potential to enhance tissue healing.

These innovations may offer longer-term relief and reduce reliance on surgery.

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Ball of foot pain, though common, should not be underestimated in its impact on mobility, comfort, and daily life. It arises from multiple causes, including footwear, lifestyle, biomechanical factors, and underlying medical issues, but careful prevention and management can significantly reduce its burden. Through proper footwear, weight management, physical therapy, and, when necessary, medical interventions, most individuals can find relief and return to normal activities. Ongoing innovations in footwear design and podiatric medicine hold promise for improving outcomes in the future.

Ultimately, attentiveness to foot health plays a vital role not only in preventing pain but also in supporting the overall freedom of movement that underpins daily living.

The APOS system is a biomechanical treatment for knee osteoarthritis designed to alleviate pain, improve gait, and enhance quality of life through the use of a personalized, foot-worn device. Below is a comprehensive exploration and critical review of the system—its mechanism, clinical evidence, applications, benefits, drawbacks, and future implications for knee osteoarthritis care.

Overview of Knee Osteoarthritis

Knee osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common form of arthritis, affecting millions worldwide, especially those over the age of 65. Characterized by degeneration of the articular cartilage, knee OA leads to chronic pain, stiffness, reduced mobility, deformity, and significant disability. Standard therapy generally begins with education, exercise, weight management, and often pharmacologic pain control, while surgery is considered for advanced or non-responsive cases.

What is the APOS System?

The APOS system, commercially known as Apos®, is an innovative, non-invasive therapy featuring a personalized foot-worn device. This device includes two convex-shaped elements affixed to a special shoe platform, strategically adjusted for each patient’s anatomical alignment and gait patterns. The system aims to reduce abnormal mechanical loading across the knee joint by actively adjusting the center of pressure during standing and walking.

Mechanism of Action

Unlike passive orthopedic footwear or braces, the APOS system works through controlled micro-instability. By wearing the device for about one hour a day during regular activities, users engage in subtle, controlled perturbations that help retrain muscle activity and joint alignment. Adjustments to the positioning of the forefoot and hindfoot elements correct varus or valgus malalignment, redistribute joint load, and immediately reduce pain. Over time, this process aims to strengthen muscles, restore function, and encourage healthy biomechanics for gait.

Clinical Evidence and Research

Short- and Long-Term Outcomes

Several clinical studies and reviews report that the APOS system provides significant benefits for knee OA patients:

• Short-Term Relief: In a controlled study, 54 patients had notable reductions in knee pain—with a 65% mean improvement on the WOMAC scale—and improved locomotor function over 8 weeks compared to controls.
• Long-Term Benefits: A two-year follow-up study found persistent improvements in pain, function, and quality of life in the APOS group, with a much lower rate of progression to total knee replacement (2.6% vs. 31% in controls).
• Gait Improvement: Gait assessments before and after 6 months of APOS use showed significant enhancement in multiple biomechanical and symptomatic parameters, including a 68% median pain reduction.
• Quality of Life: Improvements were consistently reflected in validated instruments such as the WOMAC (pain, stiffness, function), the SF-36 (general health), and the Aggregated Locomotor Function (ALF) scores.

Limitations and Caveats

While evidence is generally favorable, several key limitations should be acknowledged:

• Most studies had relatively small sample sizes and sometimes lacked robust randomization.
• Some studies were conducted or sponsored by the manufacturers, raising the potential for bias.
• There remains a need for larger, independently funded randomized controlled trials to definitively establish effectiveness and cost-benefit.

Comparative Advantages

Versus Traditional Treatments

• Non-Invasive: APOS provides a drug-free, surgery-free alternative that is easily incorporated into daily routines.
• Personalized: The system is custom-tailored to each patient, optimizing joint offloading and muscle retraining for individual biomechanics.
• Convenience: It is designed for home, work, or normal activities, avoiding the need for supervised therapy sessions.
• Proven Gait Effects: Gait analysis reveals measurable improvements in markers associated with reduced knee load and healthier walking patterns.

Potential to Delay Surgery

Early evidence suggests that consistent use of the APOS system may not only relieve symptoms but also delay or possibly prevent the need for total knee arthroplasty in selected patients. Given the risks, costs, and rehabilitation demands of surgery, this is a significant potential benefit if validated in further research.

Indications and Suitability

The APOS system is generally recommended for individuals with symptomatic medial or general knee OA who do not have serious balance problems, severe osteoporosis, or a history of unexplained frequent falls. It is less suited to those who require aids for basic mobility indoors. As with any therapy, patient compliance and engagement, as well as a thorough multidisciplinary assessment, are critical to success.

Side Effects and Safety

APOS is well-tolerated, with minor side effects limited mainly to transient discomfort or mild balance instability during the adjustment period. Since the device is used during normal activities, it does not cause the adverse effects associated with many drugs or the risks inherent in surgery.

Implementation and Ongoing Care

The process typically begins with a detailed biomechanical assessment, measurement of knee alignment, muscle strength, and gait kinematics. The device is adjusted and periodically fine-tuned according to patient progress, with ongoing support from trained clinicians to optimize benefit and encourage compliance.

Future Directions and Research Needs

While the trajectory of results is promising, future research should address several areas:

• Larger, multicenter randomized controlled trials to confirm efficacy and clarify optimal patient selection.
• Cost-effectiveness analyses to determine value relative to competing interventions, particularly in health systems with limited resources.
• Investigation of the system’s effects on other lower-limb or spine osteoarthritis presentations.

The APOS system is an innovative, clinically proven device therapy for knee osteoarthritis with robust evidence supporting improvements in pain, function, gait, and quality of life for many patients. Its non-invasive, personalized approach offers a viable alternative to pharmacologic and surgical treatments, especially for those motivated to pursue active, conservative care. While further large-scale studies are warranted to confirm best practices and long-term outcomes, current research positions APOS as a valuable addition to the treatment armamentarium for knee osteoarthritis.

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) notably affects the foot in several important ways, leading to pain, disability, and reduced quality of life for many patients. Its impact extends beyond the spine, often involving the joints, tendons, and ligaments of the foot through inflammatory and degenerative processes. The following essay explores how AS affects the foot, considering pathophysiology, symptoms, clinical significance, diagnosis, and treatment options.

Pathophysiology: How AS Targets the Foot

Ankylosing spondylitis predominantly affects the axial skeleton, but up to 80% of patients can experience peripheral involvement, most commonly enthesitis—where tendons and ligaments attach to bone. In the foot, the primary sites are the Achilles tendon and plantar fascia. Inflammation at these sites leads to pain, swelling, and impaired mobility.

Enthesitis is the hallmark of AS’s effect on the foot. The heel (Achilles tendon insertion) and the arch (plantar fascia origin) experience chronic inflammation, causing tenderness and stiffness, especially after periods of rest or on waking up. Advanced disease may end in abnormal bone growth (enthesophytes) and local ankylosis—where bones fuse together—impacting the biomechanics of gait.

Tarsal arthritis is another manifestation, with inflammation of mid-foot joints resulting in pain, swelling, and sometimes structural deformity. Severe, chronic inflammation can produce “ankylosing tarsitis,” marked by pronounced swelling, diffuse osteopenia, joint space narrowing, and bone ankylosis visible on radiographs. Over time, persistent inflammation may lead to erosions and enthesophyte formation at bone attachments.

Clinical Symptoms: Pain, Disability, and Deformity

Foot pain in AS is highly prevalent; studies indicate that only about 20% of AS patients have no foot complaints, with pain, swelling, and stiffness being the leading issues. Pain typically centers on the heels, ankles, and arches, sometimes radiating to the toes. The most common conditions in the foot are:

• Achilles enthesitis: Pain and swelling at the back of the heel due to inflamed Achilles tendon insertion.
• Plantar fasciitis: Pain in the arch or heel resulting from plantar fascia inflammation, making walking or standing difficult.
• Tarsal arthritis/tarsitis: Pain, swelling, and reduced mobility in the mid-foot due to inflamed tarsal bones and joints.
• Dactylitis: Swelling and tenderness of toes, sometimes referred to as “sausage digits” due to the characteristic appearance.

Morning stiffness, pain upon waking, and exacerbation after periods of inactivity are classic AS features in both the spine and the foot.

Functional limitations are prominent, with more severe disability correlated with higher disease activity. Patients report difficulty in ambulation, climbing stairs, and even basic movements, all associated with pain and reduced foot function.

Deformities can develop, such as flat foot due to arch involvement, or joint fusion (ankylosis) in severe cases. Imaging studies occasionally show “boot sign” on ankle radiographs due to bony fusion.

Diagnosis and Assessment

Diagnosis of AS foot involvement combines clinical history, physical examination, and imaging. Tenderness at the entheses (Achilles, plantar fascia) is a key clinical finding. Patient-reported outcome measures, like the Foot Function Index (FFI), track pain and disability, while disease activity scores such as ASDAS and BASDAI help assess severity.

Imaging includes radiographs, which may show erosions, joint space narrowing, enthesophytes, and ankylosis. MRI can detect soft tissue edema, synovial swelling, and bone inflammation even in early disease.

Management: Relieving Symptoms and Improving Function

Treatment of AS-related foot problems focuses on reducing pain and inflammation, restoring function, and preventing deformity. Main interventions include:

• Medications: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are first-line for pain and stiffness. Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) and biologics (TNF inhibitors) are reserved for more severe or persistent cases; these agents target systemic inflammation and have shown benefit for enthesitis and arthritis.
• Physical therapy: Stretching and strengthening exercises for the ankle, Achilles tendon, and plantar fascia improve mobility and reduce pain.
• Footwear modifications: Supportive shoes, custom orthotics, and heel pads can reduce stress on inflamed areas and improve comfort.
• Local interventions: In refractory cases, corticosteroid injections at the Achilles or plantar fascia may help reduce local inflammation.medicalnewstoday
• Surgical intervention: Rarely, surgery may be necessary for severe deformities or intractable pain, such as tendon release or correction of fused joints.

Education and self-care are also important, as patients must learn how to manage exacerbations and avoid activities that worsen symptoms.

Quality of Life and Long-Term Impact

Foot problems significantly affect quality of life in AS. Pain and disability can limit walking, exercise, and even work. Studies report that those with higher disease activity have worse foot function and greater impairment in daily living. Chronic foot pain may contribute to fatigue, depression, and reduced participation in social and recreational activities.

Ankylosing spondylitis exerts a profound effect on the feet by inducing pain, stiffness, swelling, and deformity through enthesitis, arthritis, and abnormal bone growth. Foot involvement in AS is common and correlates with disease activity, leading to substantial disability and lowering quality of life. Early recognition and targeted management—including medication, physical therapy, and supportive footwear—are essential to alleviate symptoms and preserve function. Comprehensive care should address both the physical and psychological impacts to optimize outcomes for those living with AS.

An Achilles tendon rupture is a significant injury involving the tearing of the strongest tendon in the human body, which connects the calf muscles to the heel bone. This injury is both common and debilitating, particularly among active individuals, and can severely limit movement and quality of life if not promptly treated. Understanding the structure and function of the Achilles tendon, as well as the causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and management of ruptures, is essential for effective prevention and recovery.

Anatomy and Function

The Achilles tendon is a robust cord of tissue running down the back of the lower leg, linking the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles (the calf) to the calcaneus (heel bone). Its primary function is to facilitate walking, running, jumping, and standing on tiptoe by transmitting force from the calf muscles to the foot. This tendon endures immense stress with every step, especially during high-impact activities, making it susceptible to both chronic degeneration and acute rupture.

Causes and Risk Factors

Achilles tendon ruptures typically occur when the tendon is suddenly overstretched. This can happen during sports that involve sudden acceleration or deceleration, jumping, or rapid pivoting. Common triggers include forceful jumping, sprinting starts, or missing a step while descending stairs. Middle-aged recreational athletes are at the highest risk, though ruptures can affect anyone, especially those with pre-existing tendon weakness due to previous injuries, tendonitis, or use of particular medications such as corticosteroids or some antibiotics.

Several risk factors increase the likelihood of rupture:

• Age: Most common in people aged 30 to 50.
• Sex: Males are more frequently affected.
• Recreational Sports: Higher in those who play intermittent, high-intensity sports.
• Medical Conditions: Diseases like rheumatoid arthritis can weaken the tendon.
• Medications: Corticosteroids and fluoroquinolone antibiotics can reduce tendon strength.

Symptoms and Clinical Presentation

A classic Achilles tendon rupture presents with a sudden, sharp pain at the back of the ankle or calf, often described as a sensation of being kicked or hit in the back of the leg. Many patients report hearing or feeling a pop or snap when the rupture occurs, followed by immediate swelling and difficulty bearing weight. Common symptoms include:

• Severe pain near the heel
• Swelling and bruising along the back of the lower leg
• Inability to stand on tiptoe or push off the foot during walking
• A palpable gap or depression just above the heel where the tendon has torn
• Weakness or a complete loss of function in the affected leg.

In some cases, particularly partial ruptures, the symptoms may be subtler but still include pain and weakness.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis begins with a thorough history and physical examination. The most reliable physical test is the Thompson test, in which the doctor squeezes the calf; if the tendon is intact, the foot will flex. If ruptured, there will be little or no movement. Additional diagnostic tools include ultrasound or MRI to confirm the extent and exact location of the rupture, particularly in complex or partial injuries.

Treatment Options

Non-surgical Management

Non-surgical treatment consists of immobilizing the foot and ankle with a cast, brace, or walking boot, usually in a downward-pointing (plantarflexed) position to allow the torn ends of the tendon to heal together. Rehabilitation often begins early, focusing on gradual weight-bearing and physical therapy to restore strength and flexibility. This approach avoids surgical risks (such as infection or nerve damage) but may have a slightly higher risk of re-rupture, especially in very active individuals. Non-surgical management has improved outcomes with modern functional rehabilitation protocols.

Surgical Repair

Surgery involves stitching the torn ends of the tendon together via an incision on the back of the ankle. Depending on the extent of the rupture, tissue grafts or reinforcement with other tendons may be necessary. Surgery generally reduces the risk of re-rupture and can maximize the restoration of strength and function. Minimally invasive techniques have reduced infection and complication rates compared to older open surgeries. Surgical treatment is often recommended for younger, athletic, or highly active patients, as well as those for whom rapid return to pre-injury activity is a priority.

Rehabilitation

Whether treated surgically or non-surgically, rehabilitation is critical. Physical therapy focuses on restoring mobility, flexibility, and strength to the calf muscles and Achilles tendon. Rehabilitation usually begins with gentle, protected movement and progresses to strengthening and balance exercises as healing advances. Most people recover to their previous level of activity within four to six months, though full recovery may take up to a year.

Prognosis and Complications

With appropriate treatment, the prognosis for Achilles tendon rupture is generally good—most patients regain near-normal function. Common complications include delayed healing, stiffness, and, more rarely, deep vein thrombosis or infection (with surgery). There is a small risk of re-rupture, and some patients may notice reduced calf strength even after healing. Adhering to a structured rehabilitation protocol can minimize long-term impairments.

Prevention

Strategies to reduce the risk of rupture include:

• Gradually increasing the intensity and duration of athletic activities
• Engaging in regular stretching and strengthening of the calf muscles and Achilles tendon
• Ensuring a proper warm-up before sport
• Wearing supportive, well-fitting footwear
• Avoiding sudden, unaccustomed bursts of physical activity, especially in middle age
• Addressing medical conditions and avoiding unnecessary corticosteroid injections or antibiotic use that can weaken tendons.

Psychosocial Impact

An Achilles tendon rupture can be psychologically distressing, particularly for athletes and active individuals who may be temporarily or permanently unable to engage in their preferred activities. Fear of re-injury or chronic weakness can also cause anxiety. Comprehensive care should address both the physical and mental aspects of recovery, providing emotional support and realistic expectations about the healing process.clevelandclinic

Achilles tendon ruptures are serious but treatable injuries predominantly affecting active individuals who subject their tendons to intense or sudden stress. Timely diagnosis and treatment—whether surgical or non-surgical—coupled with structured rehabilitation, offer the best prospects for a successful return to activity. Awareness of risk factors and adherence to preventive measures can help minimize the incidence of this challenging injury.

The accessory navicular is an extra bone or piece of cartilage located on the inner (medial) side of the foot, just above the arch. It is not a part of the normal bone structure and represents a common anatomical variant involving the navicular bone.

Anatomical Overview

The navicular bone is a key structure in the midfoot, supporting the arch and serving as a critical attachment for the posterior tibialis tendon. An accessory navicular develops from a secondary ossification center of the navicular tuberosity that fails to unite with the main body of the navicular during early development. The tibialis posterior tendon inserts into the navicular tuberosity, and the presence of this extra bone can affect the tendon’s function, sometimes leading to arch malalignment or associated foot conditions.

Epidemiology and Genetic Factors

An accessory navicular is found in approximately 4–21% of the population, with a notably higher prevalence of up to 45% reported in some Asian populations. It is more commonly diagnosed in females and is often present bilaterally, with studies reporting a bilateral prevalence between 50–90%. Genetics play a role, and the feature is often associated with a flat (pes planus) foot posture, further complicating the biomechanical picture of affected individuals.

Classification of Accessory Navicular

The most widely accepted classification system is the Geist classification (1914), which organizes accessory navicular bones into three types according to morphology, position, and connection with the navicular:

Type	Description	Location & Connection	Prevalence	Symptoms
I	Small, round sesamoid bone; os tibiale externum	Within posterior tibial tendon, no cartilaginous connection to navicular	~30%	Usually asymptomatic
II	Large, triangular or heart-shaped bone	Connected by fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage to navicular tuberosity	~50-60%	Most likely to be symptomatic
III	Enlarged navicular tuberosity (cornuate navicular)	Osseous fusion; prominent bony enlargement	~10-20%	Occasionally symptomatic

Type II is the most common and most likely to produce symptoms, often precipitated by trauma, overuse, or footwear irritation that exacerbates local swelling or pain.

Clinical Presentation

Most individuals with an accessory navicular are asymptomatic, discovering the condition incidentally via imaging. However, some develop accessory navicular syndrome, particularly during adolescence or after an acute injury or repetitive stress:

• Medial foot pain: especially aggravated by walking, running, weight-bearing activities, or stairs.
• Swelling or palpable bony prominence: on the medial side of the foot, just below the ankle.
• Shoe irritation: increased friction from footwear over the protuberance can induce inflammation.
• Difficulty with physical activity: pain may cause limp or limited activity.
• Association with flat feet: the extra bone can compromise posterior tibial tendon function and arch integrity, leading to pes planus and increased strain.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of accessory navicular relies on a thorough history, physical examination, and imaging:

• X-rays (Weightbearing): reveal the size, location, and type of accessory navicular present.
• MRI: used to assess inflammation, particularly in symptomatic Type II cases.
• Additional imaging: may be required for surgical planning or to exclude other foot pathologies.

Treatment Modalities

Non-Surgical Management

Non-surgical treatment is the first-line approach for symptomatic cases. Options include:

• Activity modification: reduce activities that exacerbate symptoms.
• Immobilization: moon-boot or cast may help with acute pain.
• Pain relief: NSAIDs, ice, corticosteroid injections.
• Orthotics: arch supports, shoe modifications, and padding to limit friction.

Surgical Management

When non-surgical measures fail or symptoms persist, surgery may be needed. The principal surgical options include:

• Excision: removal of the accessory navicular bone (modified Kidner procedure), especially effective for smaller Type I and unstable Type II bones.
• Fixation: removal of the fibrous synchondrosis and fixation of the accessory navicular to the main body of the navicular with a screw, especially in larger or persistent symptomatic Type II cases.
• Additional procedures: such as correction of associated flatfoot deformity, may be performed when indicated.

Prognosis and Complications

Most individuals with an accessory navicular do not experience long-term complications and remain asymptomatic. For those requiring intervention, proper treatment—whether conservative or surgical—frequently leads to resolution of symptoms and restoration of normal activity levels. Surgical complications are infrequent but may include persistent pain, nerve irritation, or recurrence in rare cases.

The accessory navicular bone is a common, yet often overlooked, anatomical variant in the foot. While usually asymptomatic, it can cause significant discomfort and functional impairment in some cases, particularly adolescents and those with flat feet. Clinical management is guided by symptom severity and the specific anatomical subtype, with most individuals responding well to conservative therapy and only a minority requiring surgery for persistent symptoms. Awareness and early intervention when accessory navicular syndrome is suspected are crucial for optimal outcomes.